World Culture

Arts and Cultures

Africa

Humans first evolved in Africa, walking upright about five million years ago, and making the first tools about two and a half million years ago using the opposable thumb.

Long before contact with Europe, several African states, including ancient Egypt, Aksum, ancient Ghana, Mali, Songhoy, Ile Ife, and the Benin kingdom, became well known in different parts of the continent.

The centralised government systems of these kingdoms were based on the exclusive authority of the ruler, or king, whose power was often justified through religious ideology. They were the only ones who had the power to break social rules and to take human life and could delegate it to selected dignitaries. Contemporary art, both for the art market and for the indigenous market, thrives. Ancient skills in ceramics textiles metalwork and sculpture continue to flourish. The past century has seen the development of new art forms such as the printed cloth known as kanga in Eastern Africa, wax prints and fancy prints in Western and Central Africa. Recycling of manufactured goods – whether clothes, tyres, tins or weapons  provide an easy source of raw materials of endless variety.

Woven textiles and other fabrics are embedded in the culture of Africa. Often decorated with brilliant colours and intricate designs, they are available in almost every part of the continent. The designs and the slogans printed on them represent a subtle and complex form of communication.

Ancient Egypt

Towards the end of the fourth millennium BC several independent city-states were unified to form a single state, marking the beginning of over 3,000 years of pharaonic civilisation in the Nile Valley. Fertile earth left behind after the yearly Nile flood provided the basis for Egypt’s agricultural prosperity, a key factor in the longevity of the civilisation.

Impressive monuments were erected in the name of kings, from monumental temples for the gods to the pyramids marking the burials of rulers.

Texts preserved on papyrus help reveal the complex administration of the country, but also include magical, medical and mathematical works and poetry. Pottery vessels and a variety of tools and agricultural equipment hint at the day-to-day lives of ancient Egyptians.

At certain periods, Egypt’s empire extended over neighbouring areas, from Upper Nubia to the Euphrates river. But Egypt was also linked to other countries through trade, and many foreigners came to reside in Egypt, producing a cosmopolitan society.

Egypt did endure several periods of foreign domination, by Palestinian, Nubian, Persian, Greek and Roman rulers. Yet throughout, temples to the Egyptian gods continued to be built in the traditional style and aspects of Egyptian religion spread throughout the ancient world. 

By the fourth century AD, Christianity had become the dominant religion along the Nile, with Islam first introduced in the seventh century AD.

Ancient China

Ancient China includes the Neolithic period (10,000 -2,000 BC), the Shang dynasty (c. 1500-1050 BC) and the Zhou dynasty (1050-221 BC). The Xia dynasty, alleged to precede the Shang, is not fully documented so its existence is still speculative. Each age was distinct, but common to each period were grand burials for the elite from which a wealth of objects have been excavated.

The Neolithic Period, defined as the age before the use of metal, witnessed a transition from a nomadic existence to one of settled farming. People made different pottery and stone tools in their regional communities. Stone workers employed jade to make prestigious, beautifully polished versions of utilitarian stone tools, such as axes, and also to make implements with possible ceremonial or protective functions. The status of jade continues throughout Chinese history. Pottery also reached a high level with the introduction of the potter’s wheel.

The Shang dynasty was notable for casting bronze using ceramic moulds, a system that required advanced technology and control over labour. Bronze vessels enjoyed high status as ritual vessels to offer food and wine to the spirits of ancestors, whose veneration is a keystone of Chinese culture. Writing was first introduced in the Shang dynasty, cast in bronze or engraved in oracle bones used in divination.

The Zhou dynasty was long and divided into the Western Zhou (c. 1050 – 771 BC), with its capital to the west in Xi’an, and the Eastern Zhou (771—221 BC), with its capital to the east in Luoyang. This period witnessed economic expansion, political struggles, and courtly displays of sumptuous material goods.  This is the age when Confucius and Laozi promulgated philosophies (Confucianism and Daoism), which along with Buddhism (arrived in China by the first century AD) were known as the Three Teachings—the cornerstone of Chinese thought and culture.    

Imperial China

Imperial China is divided into two periods beginning with early imperial China that spans the Qin Dynasty (221–207 BC) through the Tang Dynasty (AD 618-907) and later imperial China from the Song Dynasty (AD 960–1279) through the Qing Dynasty (AD 1644–1911).

Imperial Chinese history is marked by the rise and fall of many dynasties and occasional periods of disunity, but overall the age was remarkably stable and marked by a sophisticated governing system that included the concept of a meritocracy. Each dynasty had its own distinct characteristics and in many eras encounters with foreign cultural and political influences through territorial expansion and waves of immigration also brought new stimulus to China. China was a highly literate society that greatly valued poetry and brush-written calligraphy, which along with painting, were called the Three Perfections, reflecting the esteemed position of the arts in Chinese life.

Imperial China produced many technological advancements that have enriched the world, including paper and porcelain.

Confucianism, Daoism and Buddhism were the dominant teachings or religions in Imperial China and most individuals combined all three in their daily lives. Each of these teachings is represented by paintings in the Museum, most notably by The Admonitions Scroll after Gu Kaizhi and the cache of Buddhist scroll paintings from the eighth to tenth century that had been rolled up and sealed away in the eleventh century in Cave 17 at Dunhuang’s Caves of the Thousand Buddhas. Ceramics were produced all over the country in vast numbers. In the Song dynasty, collectors prized those with green to blue glazes such as Ru wares above all others.

Ancient Rome

n legend Rome was founded in 753 BC by Romulus, its first king. In 509 BC Rome became a republic ruled by the Senate (wealthy landowners and elders) and the Roman people.  During the 450 years of the republic Rome conquered the rest of Italy and then expanded into France, Spain, Turkey, North Africa and Greece.

Rome became very Greek influenced or “Hellenised”, filled with Greek architecture, literature, statues, wall-paintings, mosaics, pottery and glass. But with Greek culture came Greek gold, and generals and senators fought over this new wealth. The Republic collapsed in civil war and the Roman empire began. 

Starting with Augustus in 27 BC, the emperors ruled for five hundred years. They expanded Rome’s territory and by about AD 200, their vast empire stretched from Syria to Spain and from Britain to Egypt. Networks of roads connected rich and vibrant cities, filled with beautiful public buildings. A shared Greco-Roman culture linked people, goods and ideas.

The Roman empire was so large that five departments of the British Museum hold art and artefacts from it. Prehistory and Europe holds material from Roman Britain, and the whole empire after the fourth century. Ancient Egypt and Sudan has evocative mummy portraits, while Middle East has stone portraits from the city of Palmyra. Coins and Medals holds an extensive collection of Roman coins. Greece and Rome holds material from Rome’s Mediterranean heartland, in particular from Italy, Greece, Turkey and Libya.


Roman Britain

In AD 43, Britain became a province of the Roman Empire when it was invaded by an army under the emperor Claudius. Its links with the Empire, however, had already been long established through trade, population movement and political alliances.

Nevertheless, there was understandably native resistance, notably by Boudicca. But by the 70s AD, much of the island was under Roman control.

Britannia, as it became known, covered the areas of modern England and Wales. Modern Scotland was never fully conquered. By the end of the second century AD, Hadrian’s Wall was the northernmost frontier of the Roman Empire, whilst Ireland always remained outside. Roman rule finally came to an end in the early fifth century AD.

The British Museum collection includes thousands of objects that reflect these four centuries of Roman rule, and show how Roman and native culture became mixed. The Romans built towns and villas of stone, brick, tile, plaster and mosaics, and roads to link them. Latin became the official language, and the law, administrative system and currency of Rome were all introduced.

The range of imports increased, and settlers arrived from other Roman provinces in Europe, the Middle East and North Africa. Native religions and classical beliefs became interlinked. Other cults from the east were introduced, and Christianity became increasingly popular in the fourth century AD.


Modern Era

The modern era emerged from the profound changes caused by the industrial revolution. This began in England in the late eighteenth century where, in Birmingham, James Watt and Matthew Boulton invented the steam engine, the first source of power independent of human or animal exertion.

This was the first of many inventions and breakthroughs in metals, chemicals, medicine and communications, and of the discovery of new sources of power, including electricity, the internal combustion engine and eventually nuclear fission. This process continues with the advances in computers, satellite communication and the Internet, which are affecting all aspects of life.

These developments and the constant fall in the costs of production led to unprecedented prosperity, and made those countries in Europe and North America that pioneered the growth, immensely powerful. The competition that this caused between them led to a colonisation of much of the rest of the world by the late nineteenth century. In the twentieth century it resulted in two World Wars of appalling destructiveness.

Most of the European colonies gained their independence in the 1950s and 1960s, but the processes of closer international linkage and globalisation have continued.

As more and more countries have industrialised and accumulated wealth, and as agricultural and medical advances have resulted in huge increases in population, the ill effects on the climate and environment have become increasingly apparent. The success or failure in controlling these will define the next era in human history.

The late eighteenth, nineteenth and twentieth centuries are represented in the British Museum collection by a wide range of art, contemporary design, medals and other objects.

Mauri 

Traditional Maori Art

Art has always been an integral component of Maori culture. Traditional Maori art was created using the materials available at the time, such as wood, bone, pounamu (jade or greenstone), paua (abalone) shell, flax, and feathers. Today, a greater variety of materials are used, although many artists continue to use these traditional materials today.

The colours black, red and while feature strongly in Maori art. The colour red is a symbol ofmana (prestige, power, status) and is therefore often used in the decoration of important items such as the buildings and structures around a marae (courtyard where formal greetings and discussions take place) and waka (canoes).

Contemporary Maori Art

One of the most exciting aspects of contemporary Maori culture is art. New, highly talented Maori artists continue to join the ranks of the established names in the world of Maori art, and together they are forging an international reputation due the exceptional quality of their work.

Aotearoa

Aotearoa is the Maori name for the country of New Zealand. The literal translation of Aotearoa is "land of the long white cloud".

New Zealand has been inhabited by Maori since approximately 1300 AD. Dutch navigator Abel Tasman was the first European to discover New Zealand during his voyage of 1642–43, although he never set foot on the land. In 1769 the explorer James Cook arrived in New Zealand and claimed it for Great Britain, but it wasn't until the wasn't until the late 1700s that the first Europeans began to settle in New Zealand.

Ta Moko

Ta moko, often referred to as Maori tattoo, is the traditional permanent marking of the body and face by Maori. But ta moko is distinct from tattoo in that the skin is carved by uhi(chisels) instead of being punctured with needles. This leaves the skin with textured grooves, rather than the smooth surface of a normal tattoo.

Ta moko is a core component of Maori culture and an outward expression of commitment and respect. In the past two decades there has been a significant resurgence in the practice of ta moko as a sign of cultural identity. It is customary for men to wear moko on their faces, buttocks, thighs and arms, whereas women usually wear a moko on the chin and lips.

Ta moko is performed by a tohunga ta moko (tattoo expert) and the practice is considered atapu (sacred) ritual. The design of each moko is unique to the wearer and conveys information about the wearer, such as their genealogy, tribal affiliations, status, and achievements. It is important to distinguish moko from kiri tuhi, tattoos that are not regarded as having the cultural significance attributed to moko.

Tools Used for Ta Moko

Ta moko was traditionally performed using chisels made from materials such as Albatross bone. An assortment of chisels was used, some with a straight edge, others with a serrated edge.

Today most moko are performed using modern tattoo machines (and therefore leave the skin smooth), however in keeping with the traditional practice of ta moko, there has been a resurgent increase in the use of chisels.

History of Ta Moko

The history of ta moko revolves around a love affair between a young man, Mataoroa, and Niwareka, a princess of the underworld and daughter of a tohunga ta moko. Niwareka wanted to explore the world above and while she was there she met Mataoroa. Niwareka fell in love with Mataoroa and they were married. Knowledge of ta moko did not exist in the world above, therefore Mataoroa simply wore designs painted on his body, rather than being chiselled.

One day Mataoroa mistreated Niwareka, so she returned to her father in the underworld. Seeking her forgiveness, Mataoroa pursued his wife into the underworld, enduring many trials and obstacles to reach her. But when he finally found her, the paint on his face was smeared from the sweat of his exertion. Upon seeing this, Niwareka’s people, who had chiselled faces and permanent designs, laughed at him.

Ashamed of his appearance, Mataoroa asked his father-in-law to teach him the art of ta moko. Impressed with his commitment to ta moko, Niwareka eventually forgave her husband, and they both returned to the world above, with Mataoroa taking with him the knowledge of ta moko.

Maori Haka

A haka is a traditional Maori dance. Maori haka are performed for various reasons, such as celebrating an achievement, welcoming distinguished guests, or as a pre-battle challenge. Contrary to popular belief, a haka is not always a war dance, and may be performed by both men and women.

The haka attained international fame as a result of the pre-game haka performed by New Zealand national sports teams, particularly the All Blacks rugby team.

All Blacks Haka

The most well-known haka is Ka Mate, the ceremonial haka performed by the All Blacks. Ka Mate is thought to have been composed by Te Rauparaha, chief of the Ngati Toa tribe, in the early 1800s. The pre-match haka is a long-standing tradition of the All Blacks, dating back to 1884. The Ka Mate haka was first performed by the All Blacks in 1906 and was the predominant haka performed by the team for nearly a century. In 2005 the All Blacks introduced a new haka, Kapa o Pango, which was developed specifically for the team.

Maori Business

In tandem with the re-emergence of Maori culture has been an expansion of the Maori business sector. Traditional areas of business for Maori have been agriculture, forestry and fisheries, but diversification is now underway into other sectors such as horticulture, wine, energy, renewables, information technology and large-scale tourism.

The asset base of Maori businesses has been augmented in recent years with settlements from initial claims made by Maori iwi (tribes) under the Treaty of Waitangi, and these settlements are assisting Maori businesses in their diversification goals.